Method of Cooking: Broiling

The cooking process known as broiling consists in exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked; that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas flame.

The aim of broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop flavor.

As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not help to render their fibres more tender. In applying this cooking process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in order to sear all surfaces quickly\ and thus retain the juices.

Method

At the beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.

Method of Cooking: Poaching

Poaching is a moist method of cooking in which food is placed in liquid which is brought to and maintained at, a temperature just under boiling-point (650 to 900°C). The cooking liquid may be water, milk, stock, wine, or court bouillon

Heat Transfer
Conduction: In conduction, the heat flow is within and through the body itself. Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body because of the movement of electrons within a body.

Convection: Convective heat transfer is a mechanism of heat transfer occurring because of bulk motion (observable movement) of fluids.

Depth Liquid
Shallow-Poaching: Most foods are poached by this method. A minimum amount of liquid is added and this is later used to make an accompanying sauce. Greased paper or a lid can be used to trap moisture and prevent drying out.

Deep-Poaching: When poaching some items, more liquid is used than in shallow-poaching. In the case of fruits, this is because they have to be completely covered to prevent discoloration. In other cases with eggs, depth of water is needed to prevent food from sticking to the cooking dish (or) other pieces of food during cooking.

Method of Poaching
Heat the liquid to the boiling point, then reduce the temperature that there is no movement.
Gently lower the food into the cooking liquid (The  exception is when cooking whole large fish, as it is placed in the  cold liquid and drought up to temperature)
Allow the food to remain in the liquid until cooked.
Remove the food and reserve the liquid if it is used for a sauce.

Advantages
The application of heat is gentle, so foods with delicate texture may be cooked without breaking up.
Poached foods are easily digested
No fat needs to be added to cook the food advantage for people who want to reduce the amount of fat in their diet.

Disadvantages
Poaching is not particularly suitable for large pieces of food
There are some flavor and nutrient loss from the food in the cooking liquid.
There is little development in colour and flavor.

Safety Rules
Equipment should be matched to the quantity of food to prevent spillages.

Care should be taken in handling dishes that brought to the temperature on the top of the stove and then transferred to the oven.

Methods of Cooking Food: Boiling

Boiling is a moist method of cooking in which foods are immersed in a liquid that is either at or brought to the boiling point. This liquid may be water stock, milk or court bouillon.

Heat Transfer
Heat is conducted through the equipment surfaces to the liquid in contact with them. The liquid transfers this heat to the food by convection currents. Heat is absorbed by the surface of the food and passes through it by conduction and the food cooks.

Techniques Associated With Boiling

Simmering:

This is gentle heat treatment which causes small bubbles to rise slowly from the liquid. The food remains whole, with a better texture and more and.  The water does not evaporate so quickly and less vigilance is required to maintain the correct level of a liquid.

Parboiling:

Parboiling is the boiling of food until it is only partially cooked. The food is placed in boiling water for a short time from 1 to 5 minutes, or until the outside becomes soft. The cooking process is then completed using another method. Potatoes, for example, maybe parboiled to reduce roasting time and to help brown them and give a crisper texture.

Blanching:

Blanching does involve placing food in boiling water. Food is plunged into boiling water for 1 to 2 minutes depending on the size of the food and then removed. It is then immediately refreshed in cold water.

Advantages

Tougher, cheaper cuts of meat may be used.
Heat transfer is fairly rapid and efficient
The food is not likely to burn unless the water is allowed to evaporate completely.
The food remains moist and is not likely to dry out and become hard.

Disadvantages

Flavour and some colour may be lost from the food into liquid.
Loss of nutrients (especially water-soluble vitamins) may be high.

Safety Rules

The boiling utensil should be matched with the quantity of food to be cooked. If not enough space is available water will spill as it boils.

The food handler should take care when placing foods into or removing items from, boiling liquids.

When reducing liquids adequate ventilation should be available to remove steam from the atmosphere. Condensation can cause slippery floors and dampness on electrical appliances.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUP with Examples

Majorly soups are categories into four types as: Thin, Thick, Cold and International.

Thin soups are further devided into two types; Passed and Unpassed.

Thick soups are categorised as chowder, bisque, puree, cream and

Sl.	Classification	Base	Passed/Unpassed	Finish	Example
1	Clear	Stock	Passed	Usuallygarnish	Varieties ofconsommé
2	Broth	Stock and cuts of vegetables	unpassed	Choppedparsley	Minestrone and scotch broth.
3	Puree	Stock, fresh vegetable	Passed	Croutons	Lentil and potato Related soup.
4	Valuate	Blond roux,veg,and stock	Passed	cream	Chickenveloute
5	Cream	Stock and veg. puree and white sauce	passed	Cream and Creammilk	Cream of   mushroom cream of chicken.
6	Bisque	Fish stock and shell fish	Passed	Finishwith cream	Lobster
7	Chowder	Milk,	Passed	Cream	Oyster

Broths

The term broth and bouillon can be used interchangeably. Broths are among the simplest soups to prepare. Normally, their flavor comes from long-simmering of a variety of ingredients together in one pot. An assortment of separately cooked foods may be added at various times during cooking requirements of the individual items. All the ingredients should finish cooking at the same time.

Consome

This is concentrated, a thin, clear soup made from meat, poultry or fish. The word has the same origin as consummate, meaning to bring to completion or to perfection. A consommé is cooked long enough for most of the ingredients to be extracted into the liquid. In the most general sense, consommé is a meat, poultry or fish stock, which has gone through a special clarification process, served hot or cold.

Purees

They are slightly thicker than cream soups & are somewhat coarser in texture. They are normally based on dried peas, lentils or starchy vegetables, such as potatoes & carrots.

Cream Soups

Cream soups are based on béchamel sauces.

Chowders

Thick soup resembling a stew made with meat or fish and vegetables, often flavored with cheese.

Bisque

These are traditionally based on such crustaceans such as shrimp, lobster & crayfish. These share characteristics with both purees & cream soups.

Veloute

A veloute is based on a light veloute sauce, a sauce thickened with roux & finished with a liaison of egg yolk & cream.

Vegetable Soups

Any soup containing one or more vegetables, cut in dice, brunoise, julienne, chiffonade or paysanne and eaten with the liquid they have flavored, is classified as vegetable soup or potage.

Cold Soups

This is a special category because this grouping of soups is served differently from any other: Well chilled, in chilled cups or bowls. The popularity of cold soup has recently increased. Many soups that are prepared to be a hot soup can be changed into a cold soup by simply chilling them well and making minor alterations to the structure and flavor. For instance, many purees can be served

chilled if they are made with little or no butter and thinned with cream after chilling.

International Soups

• Gazpacho – Spain
• Mulligatawny – Sri Lanka
• Chicken Broth – England
• Cockie Leekie – Scotland
• Clam Chowder – U.S.A
• Bortsch – Russia
• Beer soup – Germany
• French Onion Soup – France
• Minestrone – Italian.

Special Points for the Service and Preparation

• The first-class, clean, strong and flavourful stock should be used, as it would help in producing good quality soup.

• If there is a heavy entrée, the soup should be thin or light.

• If the heavy soup is served, the portion should be small.

• The soups should not in any way be filling or consist of food particles that require much chewing

• The garnish should be small and dainty so that they can be picked up easily by soup-spoon.

• Soups should be always moderately seasoned.

• Serve hot soups; piping hot, and cold soups; very cold.

• A little sugar should be added to tone the acidity of the soup, before mixing cream as it prevents curdling.

• Consommé should be amber in color (onions halved and browned on the hot plate are added to the soup for color)

• Accompaniments of the soups should be of a crisp character, e.g. Melba toast, various crackers, breadsticks, cheese croutons, bread rolls, etc.

• Entrée portions of one liter of soup yield five portions.

BASIC RECIPES OF CONSOMME WITH 10 GARNISHES

What is consomme?

The consomme comes from the word ‘consummate’ which means to bring to complete or perfect. It is a clear soup which is prepared from beef, chicken stock, and garnish with verities of ingredients. This can be served hot or chilled, consomme take it name generally from of the garnish for example:
Consomme Julienne: Julienne cuts of vegetable.

Basic Consomme (1 lit)

S No. Ingredients          Quantity

01         Minced meat          225gm.

02         Onion                  70gm.

03         Carrot                  50gm.

04         Turnips                  30gm.

05         Stock                  ½ lit

06         Egg white          2 no.

07         Celery                  40gm.

08         Thyme                  ¼ tsp

09         Bay leaf                  1 no.

10         Peppercorns          3 -6 no.

Method:

Mix minced meat and chopped onions, carrots, turnips, celery and mix well with egg whites. Add cold stock, thyme, bay leaf and peppercorns. Then put on fire and go on starring so that the ingredients do not stick to the button of the pan and the articles are suspended. When the mixture starts boiling then control the temperature. And let it simmer until the coagulated mass come to the top. Simmer for ½ hour. When the consommé is clear and tasty then strain through a double muslin cloth and adding the seasoning agent.

Variation of consommé

SL.          Name                                            Garnish

01 Consommé Royal                    Dice of savoury, egg custard.
02 Consommé Julienne            Julienne cuts of vegetables.
03 Consommé Brunnoise            Small dice cuts of veg. (2mm)
04 Consommé Celestine            Julienne cuts of thin pan cake.
05 Consommé vermicelli            Fine noodles.
06 Consommé entasse                    Lightly jelly with gelatin.
07 Consommé Breton                    Julienne cuts of celery, onions lack.
08 Consommé Daubery            Floweret’s of caulis flower
09 Consommé Madrilène            Dice cuts of tomato and green peas.
10 Consommé st. German            Green peas.
11 Consommé cereals                    Rice and barley.
12 Consommé Paysanme            Uniform size cuts of fresh vegetables.
13 Consommé Diabolism            Diamond cuts of cheese bisque.
14 Consommé Aurora                    Tomato puree and tapioca.
15 Consommé Caroline            Dry cook rice.
16 Consommé Hungarian            Paprika powder and saute tomato.
17 Consommé Leopold            Semolina, Julienne of chervil.
18 Consommé Egg-drops            Beaten egg.
19 Consommé Thunderstone    Slice mushroom.
20 Consommé Florentine            Julienne cuts of spinach.
21 Consommé Washington            Sweet corn.
22 Consommé Permentiere            Potato
23 Consommé A ‘I’ Agnon            Golden brown onion.

SOUPS

Soups are a generally warm food made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are characterised by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth. Traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé. Thick soups are classified depending upon the type of thickening agent used: purees are vegetable soups thickened with starch; bisque are made from pureed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream; cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream. Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include rice, lentils, flour, and grains; many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes.

Definition

It is probable that soup in its earliest form was a complete meal because it was found hearty, nourishing, economical and wholesome.

Soup is a liquid food consisting of meat, seafood, vegetables cereals or poultry. They play an important role on the menu and are regarded as appetizers as they stimulate the appetite for the heavier food to follow. On the menu, they are
served as the first course, if hors d‘oeuvre is not being served. If hors d‘ oeuvre is served then the soup is served as the second course.

Composition of soups

From the above explanation, it is evident that for making any kind of soup the following group of ingredients are obvious.

• Stock: of any variety.
• Main body ingredients: the soup will gets its name.
• Herbs: to match the flavor.
• Butter: as cooking medium.
• Seasonings: for the taste.
• Thickening agent: for binding solids and liquids.
• Garnish: for presentation and eye appeal.

The function of soup on the menu is to stimulate the customer’s appetite rather than act as a complete meal.  For this reason many soups are of alight and delicate nature.  Hot soups are a welcome feature on winter menus; conversely cold soups are ideal in the summertime.As the soup preparation needs very less amount of butter or fat and also not very spicy,it can be easily an ideal food for invalids.

EGG COOKERY

Introduction to Egg Cookery

An egg is a nutritious alternative source of protein to ovavagens. It is packed with a lot of protein and other energy-giving nutrients.

Initially, eggs were treated as non-vegetarian in nature, but today science has proved that unfertilised egg can be treated as vegetarian.

Egg cookery is very vast by itself. Eggs are used for cooking, baking, poaching, etc. be it in Indian style of cooking or continental, it plays a vital role. Eggs of hens, ducks, geese, quails, ostrich, and emu are used frequently nowadays.

The most popular and widely used eggs are of hens in India, although eggs of turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks, and geese are also used.

Colour
The colour of eggshells and egg yolks varies with the breed of hen and the food they eat, but this makes no difference to the food value.

Temperature
The ideal storage temperature for eggs is 2-5 degree Celsius.

Significance
Eggs are essential to all kinds of cooking, not only in the preparation but as food in their own right. They produce meals that are economical in price, and with a minimum of waste and time. By the term egg we mean those of the domestic hen, but these are not the only edible eggs. There are those of ducks, geese, turkeys, also of wild birds such as plovers and gulls.

An egg has been described as a “Complete Food” because they are highly nutritious and used in a range of recipes. Yolks and eggs are used separately.

In all culinary preparations, eggs are used for binding, colouring, enriching, increasing volume, coating, etc.

STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

Egg is primarily made up of shell, membranes, air cell, albumen, chalazae, vitelline membrane and yolk.

STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

Shell
Bumpy and grainy in texture, an eggshell is covered with as many as 17,000 tiny pores. Eggshell is made almost entirely of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) crystals. It is a semi-permeable membrane, which means that air and moisture can pass through its pores. The shell also has a thin outermost coating called the bloom or cuticle that helps keep out bacteria and dust.

Inner and Outer Membranes
Lying between the eggshell and egg white, these two transparent protein membranes provide efficient defense against bacterial invasion. If you give these layers a tug, you’ll find they’re surprisingly strong. They’re made partly of keratin,
a protein that’s also in human hair.

Air Cell
An air space forms when the contents of the egg cool and contract after the egg is laid. The air cell usually rests between the outer and inner membranes at the egg’s larger end, and it accounts for the crater you often see at the end of a hard-cooked egg. The air cell grows larger as egg ages

Albumen
The egg white is known as the albumen, which comes from albus, the Latin word for “white.” Four alternating layers of thick and thin albumen contain approximately 40 different proteins, the main components of the egg white in addition to water.

Chalazae
Opaque ropes of egg white, the chalazae hold the yolk in the centre of the egg. Like, little anchors, they attach the yolk’s casing to the membrane lining the eggshell. The more prominent they are, the fresher the egg.

Vitelline Membrane
The clear casing that encloses the yolk.

Yolk
The yolk contains less water and more protein than the white, some fat, and most of the vitamins and minerals of the egg. These include iron, vitamin A, vitamin D, phosphorus, calcium, thiamine, and riboflavin. The yolk is also a source of lecithin, an effective emulsifier. Yolk colour ranges from just a hint of yellow to a magnificent deep orange, according to the feed and breed of the hen.

Methods of Cooking Food

Methods of Cooking Food

Dry-Heat Method:

Dry-heat method consists:

• Grilling
• Roasting
• Spit roasting
• Baking
• Deep frying
• Shallow frying
• Barbecuing
• Microwave

Moist-Heat Cooking Method

Moist-heat method consists:

• Boiling
• Blanching
• Parboiling
• Poaching
• Steaming
• Pressure cooking
• En papillote
• Sous vide

Combination Cooking Method

Combination cooking method consists:

• Braising
• Stewing
• Pot roasting

SELECTION OF AN EGG

Selection criteria of an egg are as follows:

• A fresh egg is heavy. As the egg gets older it loses water through the shell making air pocket larger so the older the egg, the lighter it will be.
• One way of judging the quality is by observing the condition of the shell. When the egg is freshly laid the shell is covered with a substance called bloom. This coating disappears with time. So the egg may be considered as fresh if the bloom is there.
• One can determine the freshness of an egg by shaking it.
• Another is to break an egg on to the plate if the yolk is compact and positioned in the centre, the egg is fresh if the egg is old, the yolk has the tendency to spread.
• The freshness of an egg can also be tested by holding it up to the light this process is known as candling. Holding the egg in front of the light, an air chamber indicates fresh egg.
• It is easy to test the freshness of an egg by plunging into the water. The fresh egg will settle in the bottom of the glass and if the egg is stale it will float to the surface water.
• Stale eggs will have an unpleasant odour.
• Check for the crack in the shell which could let bacteria in and contaminate the egg.

USES OF EGG IN COOKERY

Various forms of using eggs in food preparation are:

Binding
Addition of eggs to minced mead and mashed vegetables etc. helps to bind the mixture. As the heat coagulates, the proteins are bound into a cohesive mass. It helps to retain the shape of mutton croquettes, meat loaf, medallions, hamburgers, etc.

Coating
The egg and egg batter help to give a coat to the food items and prevent them from disintegrating and give them a protective coating. Many of the food items such as fish fillets, croquettes, etc. are dipped into the batter before crumbing and then fried. Eggs are also used for preparing pancake batters.

Leavening
By beating the egg whites, foam is made up of air bubbles, surrounded by a thin elastic film of egg white. The mixture, when added to products such as sponge cakes, meringues, souffles, etc., increases the volume and the egg white film hardens. Addition of sugar to egg white makes it stable, smooth, and the foam does not collapse easily. Egg yolk has a less foaming power because of its fat content. An egg is used as the principal ingredient for Chou paste from which eclairs, beignets, fritters, and profiteroles are made.

Emulsifying
Eggs form stable emulsions. For example, mayonnaise, oil, and vinegar separate out unless oil droplets are coated with a substance that keeps them from separating. Eggs are the emulsifiers that give a smooth mayonnaise sauce. It is also used as an emulsifier in ice creams, cakes, cream puffs. Eggs enhance colour and shine.

Thickening
Eggs help to improve the consistency of gravies, curries, sauces, and soups. Egg liaisons used in soups and sauces help to thicken and improve consistency. When used in custards, the heat coagulates the eggs and makes the custard firm.

Decoration and Garnishing of Dishes
Silver, sieved or quarters of boiled eggs are used to decorate or garnish dishes such as salads, biryanis, curries, Vienna steaks, etc. For Consomme Xavier, threaded eggs are added as a garnish.

Clarifying
Consomme are clarified with egg whites.

Nutritional Value of an Egg
Eggs provide a significant amount of protein to one’s diet, as well as various nutrients. Chicken eggs are the most commonly eaten eggs and are highly nutritious. They supply a large amount of complete, high-quality protein (which contains all essential amino acids for humans), and provide significant amounts of several vitamins and minerals, including vitamin A, riboflavin, folic acid, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, choline, iron, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium.

They are also one of the least expensive single-food sources of complete protein. One large chicken egg contains approximately 7 grams of protein. All of the egg’s vitamin A, D, and E are in the egg yolk. The egg is one of the few foods which naturally contain Vitamin D. A large yolk contains more than two-thirds of the recommended daily intake of 300 mg of cholesterol.

COMMODITIES: SHORTENING (FATS & OILS)

Fats are solid at room temperature and melt when heated. Those used in cooking include butter, margarine, lard, suet, and hydrogenated fat.

Oils are liquid at normal temperatures but solidify at lower temperatures. Those commonly used in cooking are peanut (groundnut/arachide) oil, coconut oil, mustard seed oil, sesame (till) oil, olive oil, and safflower oil.

Shortenings of fats that are used in the baking industry and confectionery.

Hydrogenation Of Oils
The conversion of oil into fat is known as hydrogenation. The process changes the physical properties of the oil.
Hydrogenation consists of treating oil under suitable pressure and temperature with hydrogen, in the presence of a catalyst, usually Nickle (Ni). Under these conditions, the unsaturated fatty acids present in the oil combines with the hydrogen. This chemical process brings about a physical change and the liquid oil change into solid fat. The unsaturated fatty acids are chiefly those of the oleic type and are converted into solid stearic acid. The varying consistencies available in fats is due to the process of hydrogenation being stopped at various stages.

Shortenings
Fats can be used as shortenings or as a cooking medium. In confectionery, fats impart their characteristic flavor as well as shortening qualities. Their effect is to coat and break down the gluten strands, so that instead of being hard and tough to eat, foods containing shortening break off short and melt readily in the mouth.

Factors to look for in Shortenings:

Creaming Value
This affects the volume of the item eg: cakes. The amount of air incorporated during creaming increases the volume of the item.

Shortening value
The shortness gives to the end product. Shortness is a quality essential in products such as biscuits & cookies.

Stability
Refers to keeping quality and shelf life.

Consistency
Hardness or Softness depending on the purpose. Hardness for puff pastry and softness for cakes.
Water absorption will also affect the emulsification value of the shortening.

Power
As for shortening agents, fats add to the nutritional and satiety values of flour mixtures like doughs and batters. They also contribute to the taste and flavor. The type of fat and the way it is incorporated will affect the texture (eg: shortcrust pastry and flaky pastry). Baking must be done at correct temperatures. As the fat melts during baking, it must be absorbed by the flour. If the heat is insufficient, the melted fat will run out and result in a hard product. Fat which has been broken up into small particles during creaming will be more easily absorbed than fat left in large pieces.

Fat as a frying medium

Fat as a frying medium function in three ways:

• It serves to transmit heat to the articles of food to be fried.
• It adds to the nutritive value (calories).
• It contributes to the flavor and taste and texture of the food.

Fat used as a frying medium must have:

• High smoke point
• Low congealing point
• Low moisture content
• High stability
• The acceptable flavor which is neutral

RAISING AGENT OR LEAVENING AGENT

Leavening or raising means to increase the surface area of any dough or batter by creating gas bubbles inside the dough or batter. This also makes a product light in weight. The expansion of gas bubbles during baking increase the volume of the product and gives a desirable porous structure.

Raising agents that are used in the kitchen can be classified into the following categories:

• Biological (yeast)
• Chemical (baking powder, baking soda, baking ammonia)
• Mechanical (beating, whisking, creaming, sieving)
• Lamination
• Combination of all

Biological Raising Agent

Yeast can be of two types:

1. Fresh or compressed yeast
2. Dry yeast

The scientific name of yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast is unicellular microscopic fungi.

The structure of yeast consist :

• Cell wall
• Protoplasm
• Vacoale

Food

Simple sugar like dextrose or fructose.

Suitable climate

80 to 85 degree F, at least 70% humidity can give the best result.

Fermentation activity

The protoplasm of yeast contains the following enzymes:

Invertase

It converts cane sugar or sucrose into a simpler form of sugar which is known as invert sugar, which is a combination of dextrose and fructose.

Maltase

It converts maltose sugar into dextrose which can be directly fermented by yeast.

Zymase

This is the most important fermenting agent which breaks invert sugar and dextrose to carbon dioxide, some amount of pure alcohol, and a very small amount of glycerin, acetic acid and some amount of lactic acid. It also produces some flavourful aroma which gives a pleasant fermentation flavor.

Protease

It softens down the flour protein, thus gives a better stretchability for the bread (to be specific on gluten) so that it can get a good volume and structure.

Storage of yeast

Stored at 45 degrees F. Yeast is killed by heat in a range of 127 degrees to 140 degrees F.

The symptom of damaged or rotten yeast

• Buttery consistency
• Brownish in colour
• Crumbly in texture,
• Very obnoxious smell.

Chemical Raising Agent

Chemical raising agent is brought about by the production of carbon dioxide in a solution of acid and alkali, in the presence of heat.

Baking Powder

It is a leavening agent made up of a mixture of an acid reacting salt with bicarbonate of soda. We also add some starch to the mixture to keep it in a dried condition and also to act as a separator between sodium bicarbonate and acid reacting salt, until used.

On the presence of both heat and moisture, the acid reacting salt reacts with sodium bicarbonate and releases carbon dioxide. A part of the gas is entrapped into the gluten structure or small air cells of a batter which already has developed because of creaming action of fat, these structures now expand with the production of the gas and during baking also and the small part of the gas is absorbed by the media itself.

Cream of tarter is actually a form of refining tartar which is a by-product of precipitation from the grape wine manufacturing process

Ammonium Carbonate

It also produces carbon dioxide in the presence of heat but because of the strong offensive flavor, it is always to be used with very strong flavouring agents.

Mechanical Raising Agent

It is an incorporation of air by beating, creaming, whisking and sieving. Whisking of egg and sugar, creaming of fat and sugar, sieving of flour are the e.g. of mechanical raising. All these actions involve physical movement hence known as mechanical raising or leavening.

Lamination Or Water Vapour

Lamination acts as a raising procedure where the fat and dough is folded and rolled. The moisture incorporated in the fat and in the dough also will vaporise during baking and gives it the lift (or raising).

In Indian cuisine, idlis and dhoklas are steamed where heat helps to puff up the final product by vapourising the steam. In popcorn, the corn pop because of the moisture present inside and ultimately its volume increase. In choux pastry water vapour acts as raising agent.

Combination Of All

Danish pastry is an eg. of combination raising where we use yeast in the dough and fat is used by a lamination process. Some other eg. are vanilla buns, fruit cake, etc, where we use whisking, creaming and chemical raising, agent.

THICKENING AGENTS

Thickening agents give body, consistency, and palatable when used. They also improve the nutritive value of the sauce. Flavoured liquids are thickened and converted into soups, sauces, gravies, and curries, etc. In other words, binding agents are used to transforming the stocks into sauces.

There are various types of thickening agents, which are used in modern day cookery. They are as follows:

• Starches
• Flour
• Roux
• Beurre Manie
• Fruit and Vegetable Puree
• Egg yolk
• Cream
• Butter
• Blood

Starches

Starches derived from roots and vegetables are among the oldest and the most versatile thickener for sauces. They are efficient and inexpensive and that they can be used without imparting flavour of their own.

Starches should be combined with liquid and heated to almost boiling temperature to be effective. Some starches are purer than others. Cornstarch, arrowroot starch, and potato starch are almost pure starches and produces shiny sauces, whereas flour contains protein, which gives a mat appearance to the sauces.

Cornstarch

Of the purified starches, cornstarch is the most familiar. They should be used at the last minute for the thickening of the sauces and the cooking liquid that are being served. When it is cooked for long time then it looses its thickening power. Cornstarch is first mixed in water and then used to thicken the sauces and soups.

Arrowroot

Arrowroot is the best of the purified starches because it remains stable even after prolonged cooking. It is used the same way as cornstarch.

Potato Starch

Although potato starch is one of the first starches to be used in French cooking, it has never been popular as a sauce thickener. It is used the same way as the cornstarch and like cornstarch it tends to break down after prolonged exposure to heat.

Flour

In western cooking, flour has long been the most popular thickener for the sauces. It can be used in several ways. Although flour has largely been replaced in recent years by other thickeners. It is still the appropriate choice for many country style and regional dishes. Liquid in which flour is to be added must be degrease before the flour is incorporated. Flour binds with lamb and holds it in suspension throughout the liquid, making it difficult to skim. Result is a greasy, indigestible sauce with a muddy texture and flavour.

Roux

The most common method of thickening liquids with flour is to prepare a roux, by cooking the flour with an equal weight of butter. This enhances the flavour of the flour and eliminates the lumps. Because flour contains proteins and other compounds that imparts flavor, sauces thickened with roux are usually skimmed for thirty minutes once they have been brought to simmer to eliminate the impurities. Although the stock is skimmed before the roux is added, further the sauce is skimmed to eliminate the butter, impurities in the flour.

There are three types of roux:

1. White roux
2. Blonde roux
3. Brown roux
4. White roux

It is prepared by cooking flour and clarified butter for approx. 5 minutes over slow heat and stirring constantly with a wooden spoon. It is used for Béchamel sauce and thick soups.

Blond roux

Is made from fresh butter and flour. The preparation of butter and flour are the same as for white roux. It is made more rapidly and should be made at the last before using. Its colour should be pale gold. It is used for volute sauce and for some soups.

Brown roux

cooking flour in bouillon fat in the oven, gently and for a long time, removing from time to time to stir, makes it. This roux should be of light brown colour. It is used for brown sauce and demiglace.

How to combine roux and liquid

When you have a hot roux, combining it with a liquid is a two-step process. In step 1, you add part of your liquid, cold to the hot roux, blending it in with a whisk. In step 2 you blend in the rest of the liquid hot.

When you have cold roux, you can combine it with hot liquid, over heat, by blending it in with a whisk a little at a time.

Do not try to combine hot roux with hot liquid and cold roux with cold liquid.

Beurre manie

Like roux, beurre manie contains equal part by weight of butter and flour. It differs from roux because it is not cooked and is usually added at the end of the sauce’s cooking rather than at the beginning. It is most often used to thicken stews at the end of the cooking when the braising liquid is too thin.

The beurre manie should be added little by little in boiling stock whisking continuously so that lumps do not form.  Unlike roux the beurre manie should not be cooked once the sauce is thickened otherwise the sauce will a floury taste. One of the peculiarities of flour is that develops a strong floury taste after two minutes of coking that begins to disappear as the cooking progresses.

Fruit and vegetable puree

Some times fruit and vegetable puree are used in thickening sauces and soups. The puree soups are the best example of the same.

Egg Yolk

Because they thicken sauces in several ways, egg yolks are versatile liaison. They provide base for emulsified sauces, such as mayonnaise and hollandaise, and are used in conjunction with cream to finish the cooking liquid of poached meats and fish.  Not only form emulsion of fat and liquid but also combines with air so that they be used for sabayon sauce.

Sauces containing yolk should not be boiled unless they contain flour, which stabilises them. When combining egg yolk with liquids, be sure to combine some of the liquid separately before returning the mixture to the saucepan. If the egg yolks are added directly into the hot liquid then they are liable to coagulate as soon as they get in contact with the heat.

Cream

In recent years thickened cream has replaced roux as the thickener, becoming base for white sauces.

Precaution should be taken in reducing cream. Quick whisk should be given to the cream otherwise they become granular and may break. Always use large saucepan, three times the volume of the cream otherwise flames from the sides can discolour the cream.

Whenever cream is used, as a thickener in a wine based sauce, are sure to reduce the wine otherwise they giving an unpleasant flavor. The cream used in conjunction with egg yolk, butter, and flour gives a better result.

Butter

When butter is whisked into a hot liquid, it forms an emulsion, similar to the action of egg yolk. The milk solids and proteins contained in the butter acts as emulsifier and give butter sauce their sheen and consistency. Because the milk solids in the butter are what maintain the emulsion, sauces and cooking liquids cannot be thickened with clarified butter. In fact cold butter is proffered to hot butter in thickening of the sauces.

Blood

Blood has long been used in cooking to finish sauces for a braised or roasted game, poultry, or rabbit. Blood not only deepens the sauce’s flavor but also acts as a thickener. The blood must be mixed with a little amount of vinegar to avoid coagulation.

• Sugar is not only added to food for taste, but also for functional reasons.
• Sugar alternatives or low sugar foods may not be healthier.
• Removing sugar can be technically challenging.

Important roles of sugar

Aside from making some foods more palatable and providing kilo joules, sugar has a number of important properties that contribute uniquely to a food’s appearance, texture, and shelf-life. It’s, therefore, an important ingredient in both the foods we make at home and the manufactured foods on our supermarket shelves. Reducing or removing sugar from a product often requires replacement with a number of substitute ingredients to achieve the same quality, taste and texture profile.

Let’s see some major roles:

As a bulking agent

Sugar contributes to the texture of food, such as in meringue and biscuits. This is an important role of sugar in most baking applications.

As a preservative

Sugar helps to prevent or slow the growth of bacteria, molds, and yeast in jams and other preserves. It also helps to prolong the shelf life of many foods on our supermarket shelves by acting as a humectant – maintaining and stabilising the water content in foods.

Enhancing flavor

Adding a little sugar to nutritious foods such as sour fruits (frozen berries or rhubarb), or porridge, helps to make them more palatable. Sugar also enhances fruit flavors in foods.

For colour

On heating, sugar breaks down to produce the colour and desirable flavor that characterises many cooked foods. This is caused by sugars reacting with proteins as they break down in the cooking process, called the Maillard reaction. A sprinkling of sugar and cinnamon on top of fruit muffins makes for a browned crunchy topping and gives a nice texture.

Adds viscosity

Sugar provides body in drinks and semi-liquid foods like syrups, chutneys, and sweet sauces.

As an anticoagulant

When it’s heated, sugar delays the coagulation of proteins (change in liquid form to solid or semi-solid form), such as in baked custards and other desserts.

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TYPES OF SUGAR

Granulated Sugar

Granulated sugar is also known as white sugar, or “regular” sugar. It is further classified in to various types based on colour and grain size. According to the Indian Standards Specifications (ISI), there are around 20 grades of sugar based on the grain size and colours. The colour series has four grades designated as 30,29,28 and 27, while the grain size has five grades namely A, B, C, D, E. Bulk of production in the country is of C, D and E grains, branded as large, medium and small and has colour specification of 30. The D grade produced in the country is comparable to world standards.

Brown Sugar

It is used in home and food industry to develop the rich molasses type flavor in cookies, candies and similar products. It consists of sugar crystals coated in molasses syrup (Molasses or treacle is a thick syrup by-product from the processing of the sugarcane or sugar beet into sugar. In some parts of the U.S., “molasses” also refers to sorghum syrup.) with natural flavor and colour. Many sugar refiners produce brown sugar by boiling a special molasses syrup until the brown sugar crystals are formed. A centrifuge spins the crystals dry. Some of the syrup remains giving the sugar its brown colour and molasses flavor. Other manufacturers produce brown sugar by blending special molasses syrup with white sugar crystals.

Liquid Sugar

Liquid sugars were developed before today’s methods of sugar processing made transport and handling granulated sugars practical. Liquid sugar is essentially liquid granulated sugar and can be used in products wherever dissolved granulated sugar might be used.

Invert Sugar

Inversion or chemical breakdown of sucrose results in invert sugar, an equal mixture of glucose and fructose. Available commercially only in liquid form, invert sugar is sweeter than granulated sugar. It is used in the carbonated beverage industry
and in food products to retard crystallisation of sugar and retain moisture.

Various Forms of Sugar

Sugar is available in many different forms. Some various forms of sugar are white sugar, caster sugar, granulated sugar, icing sugar, decorating sugar, vanilla sugar, cube sugar, jam sugar, jelly sugar, granulated brown sugar, soft brown sugar, demerara sugar, muscovado sugar, sugar syrup.

White Sugar

Refining raw sugar obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet, removing all impurities, makes white sugar.

Caster Sugar

Caster sugar is white, granulated sugar with very fine sugar crystals. It is also called superfine sugar, ultra-fine sugar or bar sugar. It is best used in baking and desserts, in the making of cakes, mousses, and drinks, as well as in foods and pastries that are sprinkled, rolled or coated with sugar. Also known as Breakfast sugar. In dishes where sugar is to be whipped with eggs, cream, etc, it is best to use superfine sugar.

Granulated Sugar

Regular granulated sugar has coarser crystals than caster or superfine sugar. It may be used in making preserves, jams,
marmalade and sugar syrups. In making jams, marmalade, preserves, etc, superfine sugar can be replaced with coarser granulated sugar.

Icing Sugar

Icing sugar, also known as confectioners’ sugar, is made of white sugar ground into a smooth, white powder and used in icings, confections, drinks etc. There is usually an amount of starch mixed in icing sugar to prevent clumping. Also differently coloured or flavoured icing sugars can be found on sale.

Decorating Sugar

This white, large crystal sugar is unevenly shaped and used to sprinkle on top of sweet buns and other baked goods for garnish. It may also be called pearl, sanding, coarse or crystal sugar. There are also coloured decorating sugars
on sale.

Vanilla Sugar

A rather good substitute for real vanilla, vanilla sugar is powdered or granulated white sugar flavoured with real vanilla bean. Usually, there are little black dots of powdered vanilla bean or seeds visible in the sugar. Vanilla sugar is used instead of vanilla bean to give vanilla flavor to various sweet baked goods, desserts, whipped cream, and beverages. It is added to foods only in a small amount (usually 1 – 2 teaspoons per a batch of batter, dough etc).

Cube Sugar

Also called lump sugar, sugar cubes are made by molding and drying moistened, hot granulated sugar. Coming in various forms and colours, lump sugar is mainly used to sweeten various hot drinks. In cooking, lump sugar and sugar cubes may be used instead of granulated sugar in recipes where sugar is melted, like syrups and caramel. Sugar cubes are also used in desserts like Crepes Suzette, where they are rubbed against the zest of citrus fruit to absorb their essential oils, in order to flavor the dish. Lump sugar can be ground into granules or powdered using a mortar, a blender or a food processor.

Jam Sugar

Jam sugar is a special gelling sugar used in making jams, marmalade, jellies, and other preserves, instead of regular white sugar. It consists of white, granulated sugar (about 98 %) added with natural fruit pectin (E440, gelling agent), citric acid (E330, antioxidant) and potassium sorbet (E202, preservative). When using jam sugar, the cooking time of various preserves is often reduced, thus better maintaining the flavors, colours, and vitamins of the fruits and berries used. Jam sugar cannot be used instead of regular sugar in baking or cooking, but only in making of jams, marmalade and fruit compotes or soups.

Jelly Sugar

Jelly sugar is used to decorate desserts and pastries and to make set, clear dessert jellies. Jelly made with jelly sugar is spooned or brushed over berry and fruit garnishes to give them a thin and shiny, protective jelly coating. Jelly sugar is not suitable to be used in milk-based jellies and puddings or in canning and preserving. Jelly sugar consists of white, granulated sugar, glucose syrup, natural fruit pectin (E440, gelling agent) and citric acid (E330, antioxidant).

Granulated brown sugar

Regular granulated brown sugar is made by coating white sugar with a layer of dark molasses. It has loose, non-sticky sugar crystals with the colour ranging from light to dark brown. This type of brown sugar has a light, clean molasses flavor and coarser texture than white, superfine sugar. Granulated brown sugar can be replaced for example with demerara sugar.

Soft Brown Sugar

Soft brown sugar is made by coating white sugar with a layer of dark molasses. It is firmly packed, moist and slightly sticky, and has a stronger molasses flavor than brown, loose sugar. Soft brown sugar should be stored wrapped airtight to prevent it from drying and hardening into a clump.

Demerara Sugar

Named after the Demerara area of Guyana, the coarse-grained demerara sugar is brown, partially refined raw sugar-containing some residual impurities. The colour of demerara sugar varies from golden brown (e.g. turbinado sugar)
to dark brown, with a strong dark molasses flavor. Demerara sugar can be used to sweeten and flavor various hot beverages, and it is used in fruit and berry desserts or in making candies and toffees. Depending on its colour, texture, and depth of flavor, it can be used to replace granulated or soft brown sugar in many sweet and savoury dishes. Turbinado sugar is a further refined type of demerara sugar with a pale colour and a mild flavor.

Muscovado Sugar

Muscovado sugar is the darkest of the partially refined brown raw sugars. It has slightly sticky crystals, with the colour varying from light to dark brown. Muscovado sugar can be used to flavor tea, coffee and other beverages. It brings deep and dusky flavor of molasses into various dishes and desserts. Light muscovado sugar can be used to replace soft brown sugar in cooking and baking.

Sugar Syrups

Heating a measured quantity of sugar and water to boiling to dissolve the sugar and then boiling very briefly until the syrup is clear makes simple sugar syrups. Cooked sugar syrups differ from simple syrups in that they are left to boil until the water evaporates and the sugar cooks to a higher temperature. (The quantity of water used to make a cooked sugar is not crucial because it will be completely boiled off; you need use only enough to dissolve the sugar and in fact, some professionals do without the water entirely). Cooked sugars are categorised by different stages of cooking, from the softball stage at a temperature of about 240ÚF, through a hard bill, light crack, hard crack and finally to caramel, which measures well over 300ÚF, depending on the darkness of the colour